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You and Your Health

the molecules that keep us alive

Healthy molecules help build a healthy body. In order for our cells to function properly, all of their molecules need to be performing their individual jobs. Problems occur, for instance, when a key vitamin is missing from our diet or a protein is compromised by a faulty gene. Atomic structures have revealed how healthy molecules function and how errors in this function can cause disease.

Molecule of the Month Articles (59)

ABO Blood Type Glycosyltransferases

Acetylcholinesterase

Alcohol Dehydrogenase

Amyloid-beta Precursor Protein

	ABO Blood Type Glycosyltransferases ABO blood types are determined by an enzyme that attaches sugars to proteins
	Acetylcholinesterase Acetylcholinesterase stops the signal between a nerve cell and a muscle cell
	Alcohol Dehydrogenase Alcohol dehydrogenase detoxifies the ethanol we drink
	Amyloid-beta Precursor Protein Cell-clogging amyloids form when proteins improperly aggregate
	Amyloids Alzheimer's disease and prion diseases are linked to unnatural aggregation of proteins into amyloid fibrils.
	Anabolic Steroids Anabolic steroids like testosterone are among the most common performance enhancing drugs
	Angiotensin and Blood Pressure Many medications for controlling high blood pressure inhibit the action of the peptide hormone angiotensin.
	Apoptosomes Apoptosomes make life or death decisions in cells
	Beta-secretase Beta-secretase trims proteins in the cell and plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease
	Calcium Pump Atomic structures have captured the calcium pump in action
	Carbonic Anhydrase Carbonic anhydrase solubilizes carbon dioxide gas so we can breathe it out
	Carotenoid Oxygenase Light-sensing retinal molecules are built from colorful carotenoids in our diet
	Caspases Caspases disassemble proteins during the process of programmed cell death
	Catalase Catalase protects us from dangerous reactive oxidizing molecules
	CFTR and Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is currently treated using drugs that enhance the function of mutated CFTR
	Circadian Clock Proteins Circadian clock proteins measure time in our cells
	Collagen Sturdy fibers of collagen give structure to our bodies
	Crystallins A concentrated solution of crystallins refracts light in our eye lens
	Cytochrome p450 Cytochrome p450 detoxifies and solubilizes drugs and poisons by modifying them with oxygen
	DNA Methyltransferases Cells add methyl groups to their DNA to encode additional epigenetic information
	Estrogen Receptor Estrogen binds to receptors in the nucleus and affects key genes in development
	Fetal Hemoglobin Fetal hemoglobin allows a growing fetus to receive oxygen from their mother.
	Fibrin Rod-shaped fibrin molecules link together to form blood clots
	Glucansucrase Bacteria adhere to our teeth by building sticky sugar chains
	Growth Hormone Growth hormone brings together two copies of its cellular receptor
	Hemoglobin Hemoglobin uses a change in shape to increase the efficiency of oxygen transport
	Hyaluronidases Long carbohydrate chains are used to make our bodies flexible and resilient.
	Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT) Cells salvage and recycle their obsolete DNA and RNA
	Hypoxia-Inducible Factors HIF-α is a molecular switch that responds to changing oxygen levels.
	Insulin The hormone insulin helps control the level of glucose in the blood
	Leptin Problems with the appetite-controlling hormone leptin can lead to obesity
	Lysozyme Lysozyme attacks the cell walls of bacteria
	Major Histocompatibility Complex MHC displays peptides on the surfaces of cells, allowing the immune system to sense the infection inside
	Neurotrophins Neurotrophins guide the development of the nervous system
	Nicotine, Cancer, and Addiction Nicotine causes addiction by interacting with receptors in the brain
	Opioid Receptors Morphine and other opioid drugs bind to receptors in the nervous system, controlling pain
	Oxidosqualene Cyclase Oxidosqualine cyclase forms the unusual fused rings of cholesterol molecules
	Pepsin Pepsin digests proteins in strong stomach acid
	Phenylalanine Hydroxylase An unusual cofactor is used in the synthesis of aromatic amino acids
	Phospholipase A2 Phospholipase A2 breaks membrane lipids, forming molecules that contribute to inflammation and pain signaling.
	Piezo1 Mechanosensitive Channel Mechanosensitive ion channels give our cells a sense of touch.
	Prions Mad cow disease is caused by prion proteins that misfold and aggregate
	Proton-Gated Urea Channel A channel that passes urea allows ulcer-producing bacteria to live in the stomach
	S-Nitrosylated Hemoglobin Nitric oxide is attached to a conserved cysteine in hemoglobin and then released to control the flow of blood.
	SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid and Home Tests Home test kits for SARS-CoV-2 test for the presence of nucleocapsid, the protein that packages the viral genome in infectious virions.
	Selenocysteine Synthase Selenium is used in place of sulfur to build proteins for special tasks
	Serotonin Receptor Serotonin receptors control mood, emotion, and many other behaviors, and are targets for many important drugs
	Serpins Serpins are traps that capture dangerous proteases
	Serum Albumin Serum albumin delivers fatty acid molecules through the bloodstream
	Sirtuins Sirtuin activation is being explored as a way to slow aging.
	Superoxide Dismutase Superoxide dismutase protects us from dangerously reactive forms of oxygen
	T-Cell Receptor Lymphocytes use T-cell receptors to patrol the body for foreign molecules
	Tetrahydrobiopterin Biosynthesis Tetrahydrobiopterin plays an essential role in the production of aromatic amino acids, neurotransmitters and nitric oxide.
	Thrombin Thrombin activates the molecule that forms blood clots
	Tissue Factor Tissue factor senses damage to the body and triggers formation of a blood clot
	Tissue Transglutaminase and Celiac Disease Tissue transglutaminase staples proteins together by forming a chemical crosslink.
	Vitamin D Receptor Vitamin D helps regulate the use of calcium throughout the body
	Vitamins Vitamins are essential molecular tools that are obtained through a healthy diet.
	Xanthine Oxidoreductase Xanthine oxidoreductase helps break down obsolete purine nucleotides

Learning Resources (11)

Insulin

(Paper Model)

2025 Calendar: The Structural Biology of Nutrition

(Flyer)

	Insulin Paper Model Learn about insulin, a peptide hormone that plays a critical role in our ability to use glucose from the food that we eat
	2025 Calendar: The Structural Biology of Nutrition Calendar The food that we eat contains four major classes of molecules–proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates–as well as many micronutrients like vitamins and minerals. Our bodies contain thousands of different proteins that interact with and utilize these nutrients to build up our bodies and provide the energy we need to live.
	How do Drugs Work? Flyer PDB structures are used to discuss antibiotics and antivirals, chemotherapy, drug metabolism, drugs of signaling proteins, and lifestyle drugs.
	How Do Drugs Work? Poster PDB structures are used to discuss antibiotics and antivirals, chemotherapy, drug metabolism, drugs of signaling proteins, and lifestyle drugs.
	Oxygen Binding in Hemoglobin GIF Hemoglobin uses a change in shape to increase the efficiency of oxygen transport.
	Opioids and Pain Signaling Video Pain is one of the most trying experiences of life. On the cellular level it is communicated via special neuronal pathways. On the molecular level, however, pain is communicated like any other sensation, via a set of electrical and chemical signals facilitated by complex molecular machinery. These signals can be modulated by opioids, causing us to feel less pain, or no pain at all. Learn how opioids activate the G-proteins which in turn interact with other proteins to edit the pain signal.
	Calcium Pump Video The calcium pump moves ions across cell membranes allowing the synchronized contraction of muscle cells.
	Hemoglobin Bean Bag Toss Other Resource
	Passive Immunization with Convalescent Antibodies Article Purified antibodies may be used to treat infection by coronavirus.
	The Search for Drugs to Fight COVID-19 Article Medical researchers are testing previously-discovered antiviral drugs for effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2.
	Dexamethasone and Cytokine Storms Article Preventing too much of a good thing during SARS-CoV-2 infection

Curriculum Resources (14)

Insulin Signaling: A Molecular View

What is Diabetes? A Molecular View

"Managing Diabetes: Complications, Diagnosis and Treatments"

Sickle Cell Anemia

A_2A Adenosine Receptor

Anthrax Stealth Siderophores

Bacterial Hemophores

Chronophin

Diabetes Mellitus - What is Diabetes?

Diabetes Mellitus - Causes of Diabetes

Diabetes Mellitus - Types of Diabetes

Diabetes Mellitus - Statistics

	Lysozyme (512) Geis illustrates the structure of lysozyme, which was first revealed by X-ray crystallography in 1965 (Blake et al., 1965). The structure of lysozyme was the first to be determined via this method. Geis carefully highlights the interaction between lysozyme and the substrate. This particular illustration appeared on the cover of Scientific American Volume 215, Issue 5 (Phillips, 1966).
	Hemoglobin S Geis illustrates the hemoglobin s molecule as four nearly symmetrically arranged subunits with a mutation present in the beta chain.
	Deoxyhemoglobin Geis illustrates deoxyhemoglobin in blue, a color associated with the absence of the oxygen molecule. Hemoglobin undergoes a conformational change in the absence of oxygen to produce this conformer. In the center is a red area showing the footprint of the space between the beta chains in the oxygenated state. The beta chains move apart in the deoxygenated state.
	Oxyhemoglobin Geis illustrates the hemoglobin molecule in its oxygenated state.
	Intermolecular Contacts in Hemoglobin S Geis paints the intermolecular contacts in hemoglobin S. The lateral contacts are formed by the interactions between residues 66, 73, 80, 83 and 87 of one beta subunit and a mutant beta 6 valine from an adjacent molecule. The axial contacts are made by interactions along the molecule and include residues 16,17,19,22 and 121. Residues 95,47 and 75 interact through contacts between twisted filaments of the molecule.
	Hemoglobin (1000) Geis uses four colors to depict the hemoglobin tetramer structure. The heme groups are shown as white rectangular prisms. A red sphere is in the middle of each of these, representing an iron ion that allows capture of oxygen molecules. Hemoglobin is essential in transporting oxygen in vertebrates.
	DPG-Hemoglobin Complex Geis illustrates the complex of DPG (2,3-diphosphoglycerate) with hemoglobin as a co-crystal. The charged amino acid residues stabilizing the complex with DPG are drawn in blue.
	Hemoglobin Geis illustrates the hemoglobin molecule as four symmetrically arranged myoglobins. Since it is responsible to the transport of oxygen, it can change from an oxygen-binding configuration to an oxygen-releasing configuration in response to the demand for oxygen.
	Cytochrome c Geis illustrates cytochrome C, one of the proteins responsible for energy transfer in the electron-transport chain. He highlighted the central heme group in the molecule. Cytochrome C is essential to energy production in the body, and this particular function is highlighted by Geis' choice of framing the central heme as a source of light.
	Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Geis illustrates three possible forms of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). He highlights the differences between each structure by displaying them in a side-by-side manner.
	B-DNA Geis illustrates B-DNA in blue looking from above, through the double helix. The two bases on top are highlighted in white to distinguish one individual section of the layered scene.
	A-DNA Geis uses a thin ball and stick representation of a section of A-DNA, the more compact conformation of DNA less often seen in biological systems. He draws it from a perspective looking down into the double helix, showing the increase in diameter of the middle of the helix from the B form DNA.
	Carboxypeptidase A Geis depicts the structure of carboxypeptidase A, highlighting the central twisted beta sheet of the enzyme. The enzyme itself cuts polypeptide chains from the carboxyl terminal end. Included in the painting is an orange dot representing a zinc atom at the active site.
	Collagen Geis paints a triple twist pattern in his depiction of collagen. He portrays the chains in a thick, rope-like manner, which reflects the function of the collagen protein in strengthening tendons and muscles in animals.
	Lac Repressor In this acrylic painting of the lac repressor, Geis characterizes this tetramer representation as "four angry reindeer." Geis' painting depicts the lac repressor with both the tetramerization domain (on the bottom) and the headpieces ("antlers" of the "reindeer"). A complete crystal structure of this tetramer has not actually been determined yet.

Goodsell Molecular Landscapes (9)

Casein Micelle and Fat Globule in Milk

SARS-CoV-2 Fusion

Myelin

Immunological Synapse

	Insulin Signaling: A Molecular View
	What is Diabetes? A Molecular View
	"Managing Diabetes: Complications, Diagnosis and Treatments"
	Sickle Cell Anemia
	Proinsulin Tokyo
	"Glucose Homeostasis: In Health, Disease and With Treatment "
	Insulin Resistance: Exploring the Structure and Functions of AKT
	Mutant Insulin: Wakayama
	Short Acting Insulin: Aspart
	Measles Outbreak - To Vaccinate or Not?
	Introduction to the Immune System
	Infections: Evading Immune Systems
	Vaccines: A Molecular View
	Adolescents/Young Adults and HIV

	Diabetes Mellitus - What is Diabetes? Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder that affect many lives globally.
	Diabetes Mellitus - Causes of Diabetes Diabetes can be caused by the absense or improper function of insulin.
	Diabetes Mellitus - Types of Diabetes Diabetes is classified into various types based on its causes.
	Diabetes Mellitus - Statistics Diabetes is a growing global health concern.
	Diabetes Mellitus - Timeline This timeline lists key events in the discovery of Diabetes and its main treatment options.
	Diabetes Mellitus - Symptoms
	Diabetes Mellitus - Diagnosis Diabetes is diagnosed by measuring blood or plasma glucose levels and/or levels of hemoglobin glycation
	Diabetes Mellitus - Complications Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to many acute and chronic complications
	Diabetes Mellitus - Non-Pharmacological Lifestyle changes, including improvement in diet and increasing exercise, can help manage and prevent progression of diabetes.
	Diabetes Mellitus - Pharmacological A number of pharmacological options are available to treat diabetes.

	Casein Micelle and Fat Globule in Milk Illustration of a casein micelle and fat globule from milk
	SARS-CoV-2 Fusion SARS-CoV-2 fuses with endosomal membranes, releasing the viral RNA genome into the cell.
	Myelin Myelin forms an insulating sheath around nerve axons
	Immunological Synapse Antigen-presenting cells stimulate T-cells with small viral peptides.
	Influenza Vaccine Influenza vaccine causes the production of antibodies that fight infection by the virus
	Poliovirus Neutralization Polio vaccine causes the immune system to create antibodies that neutralize poliovirus
	Lipid Droplets Lipids such as fats and cholesterol are stored in large droplets inside cells.
	Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses (2018) by David S. Goodsell
	Biosites: Blood Plasma Biosites: Blood Plasma (2005) by David S. Goodsell.

You and Your Health

Molecule of the Month Articles (59)

Learning Resources (11)

Curriculum Resources (14)

Structural Biology Highlights (6)

Global Health (10)

Geis Digital Archive (15)

Goodsell Molecular Landscapes (9)